Unit 4

Political Patterns and Processes: the one-page sheet

4.1 Introduction to Political Geography

States are the basic political units of the world: each has people, territory, a government and recognition by other states. Nations are peoples who share a culture. When one nation fills one state, the result is a nation-state; most states are multinational, some nations live in several states, and some, such as the Kurds, have no state at all. Autonomous regions govern many of their own affairs inside a larger state.

A state is a country: a permanent population, a defined territory, a government that controls it, and recognition by other states. A nation is a people who share a culture and see themselves as one.
A nation-state is one nation in one state (Iceland comes close). A multinational state holds several nations (Nigeria, Belgium).
A multistate nation lives in two or more states (Koreans). A stateless nation has no state of its own (the Kurds).
An autonomous region governs many of its own affairs inside a state: Greenland in the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kurdistan Region in Iraq, Native American reservations in the United States.

they see themselves as one nation it seeks a state of its own, or powers inside an existing state many states hold several nations, and some nations have no state

state (country): A country: an area with a permanent population, a defined territory and a government that controls it, recognized by other states. The UN has 193 member states.
nation (people): A group of people who share a culture, such as a language, history or religion, and see themselves as one people, often with a homeland.
nation-state: A state whose people are mostly one nation, so the nation and the state cover about the same area. Iceland is often given as an example.
stateless nation: A nation that has no independent state of its own, such as the Kurds of Southwest Asia.
multinational state: A state that holds two or more nations, such as Nigeria or Belgium.
multistate nation: A nation whose people live in two or more states, such as Koreans in North Korea and South Korea.
autonomous region: A part of a state that governs many of its own affairs while the national government keeps powers such as defense. A region with fewer powers is called semiautonomous.

4.2 Political Processes

Today's political map is the product of political processes. Colonialism and imperialism put much of the world under European rule and drew many borders. Independence movements used the idea of self-determination to win sovereign states, most of them between 1945 and 1975. The new states mostly kept their colonial borders, and large states such as the Soviet Union later broke apart into new ones.

Sovereignty is a state's right and power to govern its territory without outside control. Self-determination is a people's right to choose its own political status.
An independence movement is an organized effort by a people under foreign rule to win a state: India in 1947, Ghana in 1957, Algeria in 1962.
Colonialism and imperialism drew many borders. After independence, most states kept them (Organization of African Unity, 1964).
Large states can also break apart: the Soviet Union became 15 states in 1991.

many peoples were ruled from outside and grouped inside borders they did not choose independence movements grew, and many won sovereign states the colonial outline of the map stayed, along with conflicts inside some states

sovereignty: A state's right and power to govern its own territory and people without control from outside.
self-determination: The right of a people (a nation) to choose its own political status, such as independence or self-rule inside a larger state.
independence movement: An organized effort by a people under foreign or outside rule to win a state of their own, such as India's movement that ended British rule in 1947.

4.3 Political Power and Territoriality

Political power means control over people, land, resources and routes. Territoriality is how people, groups and states claim and mark areas, at every scale from a fenced yard to a guarded national border. Neocolonialism is influence over former colonies without direct rule. Choke points, such as the Suez Canal and the Strait of Hormuz, give power over trade, and shatterbelts are regions where outside powers compete.

Political power is control over people, land and resources. Territoriality is the attempt to control people and things by claiming an area: a fence, a city sign, a guarded border.
Do not mix them up: a territory is the area, territoriality is the claiming, sovereignty is a state's recognized right to rule.
Neocolonialism is influence over former colonies through money, trade or loans, without direct rule.
A choke point is a narrow passage many ships must use (Suez, Hormuz, Malacca). A shatterbelt is a region caught between outside powers (Eastern Europe in the Cold War).

they control who and what can enter or use those areas (territoriality) it gains power over trade that passes through, so the passage is a choke point outside powers compete there and conflict is common, making it a shatterbelt

territoriality: The attempt by a person, group or state to influence or control people and things by claiming control over an area, such as with fences, signs, flags or border guards.
neocolonialism: The use of economic or political pressure, such as loans, trade or control of a currency, by powerful states or companies to influence former colonies without ruling them directly.
shatterbelt: A region caught between stronger outside powers, often divided inside by culture or politics, where conflict is common. Eastern Europe during the Cold War is a common example.
choke point: A narrow passage on a major route, such as a strait or canal, that many ships must use, so whoever controls it holds power over the traffic. Examples: the Suez Canal, the Strait of Hormuz.

4.4 Defining Political Boundaries

Political boundaries mark where one state's territory ends. Geographers sort them by history: antecedent boundaries come before settlement and subsequent ones after; consequent boundaries follow cultural lines and geometric ones follow straight lines; superimposed boundaries are forced by outside powers, and relict boundaries no longer work but still show on the land. Many boundaries fit more than one type.

Sort by timing: antecedent boundaries come before settlement; subsequent ones come after.
Sort by what it follows: consequent boundaries follow a cultural line (India and Pakistan, 1947); geometric ones are straight lines (49° N).
Sort by who drew it: superimposed boundaries are forced by outside powers (much of Africa). A relict boundary no longer works (the old East and West German line).
One boundary can fit more than one type: Kenya and Tanzania is geometric and superimposed.

it is antecedent, and settlement later grows up around it it is superimposed and may cut a people in two it becomes a relict boundary, visible in the cultural landscape

boundary (political): An invisible line, on land or at sea, that marks where the territory of one state or region ends and another begins. Also called a border.
relict boundary: A boundary that no longer works as a border but can still be seen in the cultural landscape, such as the old line between East and West Germany.
superimposed boundary: A boundary forced on an area by an outside power, often without regard for the peoples who live there, such as many borders in Africa drawn by European empires.
subsequent boundary: A boundary drawn after an area was settled, as the cultural landscape took shape, such as the boundary between China and Viet Nam.
antecedent boundary: A boundary drawn before many settlers lived in an area, such as the US and Canada line along 49° N in the west.
geometric boundary: A boundary drawn as a straight line, often along a line of latitude or longitude, such as 49° N between the United States and Canada.
consequent boundary: A boundary drawn to follow a cultural line, such as language or religion. Also called an ethnographic boundary. Example: India and Pakistan (1947).

4.5 The Function of Political Boundaries

Boundaries are defined, delimited, demarcated and administered, and they are often disputed. They control the flow of people and goods, from open borders in the Schengen Area to the closed Korean DMZ. Many African borders go back to the Berlin Conference era. At sea, the law of the sea sets a territorial sea to 12 nautical miles, a contiguous zone to 24 and an exclusive economic zone to 200, beyond which lie the high seas.

Boundaries are defined in words, delimited on maps, demarcated on the ground and administered day to day.
Boundaries shape interaction: open ones (the Schengen Area) let people cross freely; closed ones, such as Korea's demilitarized zone, stop almost all contact.
The Berlin Conference (1884 and 1885) set rules for European claims in Africa, leading to superimposed borders.
The law of the sea (UNCLOS): territorial sea to 12 nautical miles, contiguous zone to 24, exclusive economic zone to 200, then the high seas.

they know, in principle, where each one's territory ends the boundary controls how people and goods move, more or less strictly boundaries are often disputed

demarcation: Marking a boundary on the ground with posts, fences, walls or buoys. Before that, a boundary is defined (described in a treaty) and delimited (drawn on maps); after it, it is administered (run day to day).
demilitarized zone: A strip of land along a boundary where armed forces are not allowed, set up by agreement, such as the zone between North Korea and South Korea since 1953 (the DMZ).
Berlin Conference: A meeting of European powers in Berlin in 1884 and 1885 that set rules for claiming land in Africa. No African rulers took part, and the borders drawn afterward often ignored African peoples.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), adopted in 1982: the treaty that sets the sea zones each coastal state may claim.
territorial sea: The sea up to 12 nautical miles from a state's coast, which the state rules much as it rules its land, though foreign ships may pass through peacefully.
exclusive economic zone: An exclusive economic zone: the sea up to 200 nautical miles from a state's coast, where that state has the rights to fish, oil, gas and other resources.
contiguous zone: The sea from 12 to 24 nautical miles from a state's coast, where the state may enforce its customs, immigration, tax and health laws.
international waters: The sea beyond any state's exclusive economic zone, more than 200 nautical miles from the coast, open to ships of all states. Also called the high seas.

4.6 Internal Boundaries

Internal boundaries divide a state into smaller units, including voting districts. Redistricting redraws those districts, in the United States after each census, at the national, state and local scales. Gerrymandering draws them to favor one side: packing wastes a party's votes in a few lopsided districts, and cracking spreads them too thin to win. Independent commissions and rules for compact districts make it harder.

Internal boundaries divide a state into units such as provinces, counties and voting districts.
Redistricting redraws voting districts, in the United States after each census, so each holds about the same number of people.
Gerrymandering draws lines to favor one party or group. Packing crowds a party's voters into a few districts; cracking splits them across many.
Always say the effect on votes: packing wastes votes in lopsided wins, cracking leaves votes too spread out to win.

seats are shared out again (reapportionment) and district lines are redrawn (redistricting) that party's votes are wasted in a few districts or spread too thin to win a party can win fewer seats than its share of the votes

redistricting: Redrawing the boundaries of voting districts so that each holds about the same number of people, in the United States after each census. Reapportionment, a different step, shares out seats among states first.
gerrymandering: Drawing voting district boundaries to give one party or group an advantage. Packing crowds the other side's voters into a few districts; cracking splits them across many.

4.7 Forms of Governance

States share power across space in two main ways. A unitary state concentrates power in the national government, which gives regions only the powers it chooses. A federal state divides power by constitution between a national government and regional governments, so laws differ from region to region. Large or culturally diverse states are often federal, and both forms always keep a national government.

A unitary state concentrates power in the national government; regions carry out its decisions and have only the powers it gives them (France, Japan, China).
A federal state divides power by constitution between a national government and regional governments, each with its own powers (the United States, Germany, India, Brazil, Nigeria).
Federal systems often suit very large or culturally diverse states. A unitary state can still have an autonomous region (Åland in Finland).
A federal state still has a national government. Always name it when you describe federalism.

it can run most matters from the capital, so it is often unitary regions want to run some matters their own way, so it is often federal laws differ from one region to the next, while the national government keeps defense and money

unitary state: A state in which the national government holds most power; regions carry out national decisions and have only the powers the national government gives them. Example: France.
federal state: A state in which a constitution divides power between a national government and regional governments (states or provinces), each with its own powers. Example: Germany, the United States.

4.8 Defining Devolutionary Factors

Devolution moves power from a national government to its regions. It is pushed by physical division, ethnic separatism, ethnic cleansing, terrorism, economic and social problems, and irredentism. A minority concentrated in its own region, as in Quebec, Scotland or Catalonia, is the most common source of pressure. Most devolution ends with more regional self-rule, but some states break apart, as Pakistan did in 1971.

Devolution is the transfer of power from the national government to regional governments; at its furthest, a region breaks away.
Factors: physical division (Bangladesh, cut off from western Pakistan), ethnic separatism (Quebec, Scotland, Catalonia), ethnic cleansing (Bosnia in the 1990s), terrorism (ETA in Spain), economic and social problems, and irredentism (Germany and the Sudetenland, 1938).
Separatism comes from inside a state; irredentism comes from a neighbor that claims land where its people live.

it demands more self-rule or independence its demands are easier to organize and harder to ignore power moves to the region, or the state breaks apart

devolution: The transfer of power from a national government to regional governments. It can range from more regional self-rule to a region breaking away as a new state.
ethnic separatism: A movement by an ethnic group inside a state to win independence or self-rule for the region where it lives, such as in Quebec or Catalonia.
ethnic cleansing: The forced removal of an ethnic group from an area, by killing, terror or expulsion, so that another group controls it. A UN court found it took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s.
irredentism: A state's claim to territory in another state where people of its own nation live, such as Germany's 1938 claim to the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia.
terrorism: The use of violence, especially against civilians, to create fear and reach a political goal.

4.9 Challenges to Sovereignty

Sovereignty is challenged from below and above. Devolution can create autonomous regions and subnational units, as in Spain, Belgium, Canada and Nigeria, or break a state apart, as with Sudan and the Soviet Union. Supranational organizations such as the UN, NATO, the EU, ASEAN, the African Union and the Arctic Council help states face shared problems, gain larger markets and defend each other, but limit what each member decides alone. Communication technology speeds all of these changes, including democratization.

Devolution can create autonomous regions or subnational units (Spain, Belgium, Canada's Nunavut, Nigeria's states) or break a state apart (Sudan in 2011, the Soviet Union in 1991). Balkanization is a breakup into smaller, often hostile states.
Supranationalism is cooperation among three or more states through an organization: the UN, NATO, the EU, ASEAN, the African Union, the Arctic Council. Members give up some sovereignty.
Communication technology can help devolution, supranational cooperation and democratization, the spread of democratic government.

states join supranational organizations to face them together each state gives up some sovereignty in return for the gains power also moves down to autonomous regions, or a state breaks apart

supranationalism: Cooperation among three or more states through an organization for shared goals, such as defense, trade or protecting the environment, in which members give up some sovereignty. Examples: the EU, NATO, the African Union.
balkanization: The breakup of a region or state into smaller states that are often hostile to each other, named for the Balkans in southeastern Europe, where Yugoslavia broke apart in the 1990s.
democratization: The spread of democratic government, in which people choose their leaders in free elections, to places that did not have it.
economies of scale: The lower cost of each unit produced that comes from producing more, because fixed costs such as machines are spread over more output.
tariff: A tax on imported goods. It raises their price, which protects a country's own producers.

4.10 Consequences of Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces

Centrifugal forces pull a state apart; centripetal forces hold it together. When centrifugal forces win, the results can include uneven development, ethnic nationalist movements, stateless nations and even failed states such as Somalia after 1991. When centripetal forces win, the results include a shared identity, fairer sharing of roads, services and money, and cultural cohesion. The same trait can pull in both directions at different scales.

Centrifugal forces can lead to failed states (Somalia after 1991), uneven development, stateless nations and ethnic nationalist movements.
Centripetal forces can lead to ethnonationalism that unites a nation-state, fairer spread of roads, rail and services, and cultural cohesion (Swahili in Tanzania).
One trait can do both at different scales: French unites Quebec but can divide Canada.

centrifugal forces grow: resentment, separatist and ethnic nationalist movements the state may break apart, or fail and lose control of its land centripetal forces grow and cultural cohesion increases

failed state: A state whose government has lost control of much of its territory and cannot provide basic services such as security, courts or clean water. Somalia after its government collapsed in 1991 is a common example.
ethnonationalism: A strong sense of belonging to one's ethnic nation, often with the wish that the nation govern itself. It can unite a nation-state or, for a minority, pull toward separation.
infrastructure: The basic physical systems and public facilities a place needs to function, such as roads, rail, water and sewer pipes, power grids, communication networks, schools and clinics.